Introduction
The year 2025 has witnessed several landmark judgments in India, reflecting the dynamic evolution of legal principles across multiple branches of law in response to contemporary challenges. Three such rulings have significantly impacted the interpretation and application of evidence law, civil procedure, and family law. The Supreme Court’s decision in Chetan v. The State of Karnataka clarified fundamental principles of circumstantial evidence under the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, while the Kerala High Court’s judgment in M/S. National Collateral Management Service Ltd. v. Valiyaparambil Traders refined the application of limitation law. Additionally, the Supreme Court’s ruling in Rakhi Sadhukhan v. Raja Sadhukhan advanced the jurisprudence on maintenance rights for divorced women.
These landmark judgments of 2025 collectively demonstrate the judiciary’s commitment to ensuring procedural fairness, evidentiary reliability, and substantive justice while adapting legal frameworks to modern social realities. The transition from colonial-era legislation to the new Bharatiya legal codes provides an important context for understanding these developments, as courts navigate the interpretation of modernized statutory provisions while maintaining continuity with established legal principles [1].
The intersection of these three areas—evidence law, civil procedure, and family law—illustrates the interconnected nature of legal doctrine and the importance of coherent judicial interpretation across different branches of law. Each decision contributes to the broader constitutional framework that seeks to balance individual rights with procedural safeguards and social justice objectives.
Section I: Circumstantial Evidence and the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023
The Chetan Case: Factual Matrix and Legal Framework
The Supreme Court’s decision in Chetan v. The State of Karnataka (2025) emerges from a tragic murder case that exemplifies the challenges facing courts in evaluating circumstantial evidence. The case involved the killing of Vikram Sinde by his friend Chetan over a financial dispute of merely Rs. 4,000, highlighting how seemingly minor conflicts can escalate to violent outcomes. The factual matrix reveals a carefully planned crime where the accused lured the victim to an isolated location under the pretext of hunting and subsequently killed him with an unlicensed firearm [2].
The prosecution’s case rested entirely on circumstantial evidence, as no direct witnesses observed the actual killing. The evidence included the last seen theory (both individuals were seen together on the night of the murder), recovery of the murder weapon from the accused’s grandfather’s house based on his disclosure, recovery of stolen items (mobile phone and gold chain) from the accused, forensic evidence linking the weapon to the crime, and the accused’s conduct of absconding immediately after the incident while providing false information about the victim’s whereabouts.
Application of Section 6 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023
The Court’s analysis heavily relied on Section 6 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, which establishes the relevancy of facts showing motive, preparation, and conduct. This provision, which corresponds to Section 8 of the former Indian Evidence Act, 1872, encompasses two key dimensions: first, any fact showing or constituting motive or preparation for any fact in issue, and second, the conduct of parties that influences or is influenced by facts in issue, whether such conduct was previous or subsequent to the incident [3].
The Court found that the accused’s conduct of taking his grandfather’s licensed firearm under the false pretext of hunting constituted preparation for the crime. The subsequent conduct of absconding, providing false information about the victim’s whereabouts, and the recovery of stolen items formed additional links in the chain of circumstances. Significantly, the Court emphasized that while conduct includes various forms of behavior, pure statements are excluded unless they accompany and explain acts, though this does not affect the relevancy of statements under other provisions of the Act.
The Panchsheel Principles of Circumstantial Evidence
Justice Surya Kant and Justice N. Kotiswar Singh’s judgment reaffirmed the five golden principles of circumstantial evidence established in Sharad Birdhichand Sarda v. State of Maharashtra (1984), often referred to as the “Panchsheel” of circumstantial evidence [4]. These principles require that: first, circumstances from which guilt is concluded must be fully established; second, facts must be consistent only with the hypothesis of guilt; third, circumstances must be of conclusive nature and tendency; fourth, they must exclude every possible hypothesis except guilt; and fifth, there must be a complete chain of evidence leaving no reasonable ground for innocence.
The Court’s application of these principles demonstrates sophisticated judicial reasoning in evaluating the cumulative effect of multiple circumstances. While acknowledging that individual circumstances might not independently prove guilt, the Court emphasized that their combined effect must create an unbroken chain pointing conclusively to the accused’s culpability. This approach reflects the evolution of Indian evidence law toward a more nuanced understanding of inferential reasoning and probabilistic assessment of evidence.
Motive in Circumstantial Evidence Cases
One of the most significant aspects of the Chetan decision relates to the Court’s treatment of motive as a circumstance. While the trial court had noted that the monetary transaction between the accused and deceased was not strictly proved, the Supreme Court held that failure to prove motive cannot be fatal to a prosecution case based on circumstantial evidence. The Court observed that proving motive is inherently difficult as it remains “hidden in the deep recess of the mind of the person concerned” [5].
This approach aligns with recent jurisprudential trends that recognize the practical challenges of establishing psychological motivations while emphasizing the importance of objective circumstances. The Court’s reasoning reflects a balanced approach that neither dismisses motive as irrelevant nor makes it an indispensable requirement for conviction. This interpretation provides valuable guidance for lower courts dealing with cases where circumstantial evidence is strong but specific motivations remain unclear.
Burden of Explanation and Silence of the Accused
The Supreme Court’s analysis of the accused’s silence when confronted with incriminating circumstances adds another dimension to the evidentiary framework. The Court held that when prosecution proves through cogent evidence that the weapon of crime was traced to the accused, it becomes incumbent upon the accused to explain the circumstances of recovery. The accused’s failure to provide reasonable explanation or offering explanations found to be untrue becomes an additional link in the chain of circumstances.
This principle, grounded in Section 106 of the Evidence Act (now incorporated in the BSA), reflects the practical reality that certain facts are peculiarly within the knowledge of the accused. The Court’s approach balances the prosecution’s burden of proof with the accused’s obligation to explain circumstances that are primarily within their knowledge, ensuring that the adversarial process contributes to truth-seeking rather than mere procedural formalism.
Section II: Limitation Law and Section 14 of the Limitation Act, 1963
The National Collateral Management Service Case: Commercial Dispute Context
The Kerala High Court’s decision in M/S. National Collateral Management Service Ltd. v. Valiyaparambil Traders (2025) arose from a commercial dispute involving spice trading transactions between a partnership firm and a corporate entity engaged in bulk purchase of hill produce. The case required the Court to examine the strict application of Section 14 of the Limitation Act, 1963, which provides for exclusion of limitation periods under specific circumstances [6].
The factual background reveals the complexity of modern commercial relationships where parties engage in credit-based transactions across extended periods. The plaintiff partnership firm alleged irregular account management and outstanding dues, while the defendants denied liability and raised limitation defenses. The case became particularly complex due to the plaintiff’s initial attempt to file suit as an unregistered partnership firm, which was dismissed under Section 69(2) of the Indian Partnership Act for lack of capacity to sue.
Statutory Framework of Section 14 of the Limitation Act
Section 14 of the Limitation Act represents a crucial procedural safeguard designed to protect litigants who have pursued legal remedies through inappropriate forums due to jurisdictional or technical defects. The provision operates on four essential ingredients that must be cumulatively satisfied: both proceedings must be civil proceedings in courts, the earlier proceeding must have been prosecuted with due diligence, the matter in issue must be identical in both proceedings, and the earlier proceeding must have been prosecuted in good faith in a jurisdictionally incompetent court [7].
The legislative intent behind Section 14 reflects the principle that genuine litigants should not be prejudiced by technical impediments when they have made honest attempts to seek judicial remedy through legal channels. The provision embodies the maxim that “the law helps the vigilant, not those who sleep over their rights,” while simultaneously protecting those who actively pursue their rights through proper legal procedures, even if they initially approach inappropriate forums.
Good Faith and Due Diligence: Stringent Standards
Justice Satish Ninan and Justice P. Krishna Kumar’s analysis in the National Collateral Management Service case emphasizes the stringent standards required for claiming benefit under Section 14. The Court observed that despite the defendants specifically pleading the bar under Section 69(2) of the Partnership Act in their written statement and a specific issue being framed on maintainability, the plaintiffs chose to proceed with trial knowing the legal impediment [8].
The Court’s application of the principle from Madhavrao Narayanrao Patwardhan case establishes that “good faith” under the Limitation Act requires due care and attention, and prosecution of a suit despite knowledge of non-maintainability cannot be considered bonafide. This interpretation reflects a strict approach to procedural compliance that discourages forum shopping and ensures that limitation benefits are available only to genuinely deserving litigants who have exercised reasonable diligence.
Implications for Commercial Litigation
The decision has significant implications for commercial litigation, particularly in cases involving partnership firms and corporate entities. The Court’s strict interpretation of Section 14 requirements serves important policy objectives by preventing abuse of limitation provisions while maintaining protection for genuine cases of procedural errors. The ruling emphasizes that commercial parties, particularly those with access to legal advice, must exercise heightened diligence in ensuring procedural compliance.
The judgment also highlights the importance of preliminary legal assessments before filing suits, particularly in complex commercial arrangements involving multiple legal entities. The Court’s approach encourages thorough legal analysis and proper documentation of business relationships to avoid subsequent procedural challenges that could defeat substantive rights.
Section III: Maintenance Rights and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
The Rakhi Sadhukhan Case: Marital Breakdown and Financial Security
The Supreme Court’s landmark decision in Rakhi Sadhukhan v. Raja Sadhukhan (2025) addresses fundamental questions about maintenance rights for divorced women in contemporary Indian society. The case involved a marriage that lasted approximately eleven years (1997-2008) before deteriorating into irreparable conflict, ultimately resulting in divorce on grounds of mental cruelty and irretrievable breakdown of marriage [9].
The factual background illustrates common patterns in marital breakdown cases, where initial interim maintenance awards prove inadequate due to inflation, changed circumstances, and evolving understanding of maintenance obligations. The wife’s progression from Rs. 8,000 monthly maintenance in 2010 to the Supreme Court’s final award of Rs. 50,000 reflects both the inadequacy of earlier awards and the Court’s recognition of changing economic realities.
Constitutional and Statutory Framework for Maintenance
Justice Vikram Nath and Justice Sandeep Mehta’s judgment operates within a complex constitutional and statutory framework that includes Article 15(3) (special protection for women), Article 21 (right to life and dignity), Section 25 of the Hindu Marriage Act (permanent alimony), and Section 144 of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (maintenance proceedings). The Court’s analysis integrates these provisions to create a coherent framework for maintenance determination that serves both constitutional values and practical needs [10].
The distinction between civil maintenance under Section 25 of the HMA and criminal maintenance under Section 144 of the BNSS reflects different policy objectives and procedural approaches. While civil maintenance provides permanent relief in matrimonial proceedings, criminal maintenance serves preventive justice by providing quick and effective support to prevent destitution. The Court’s comprehensive analysis recognizes that divorced women may require both immediate relief and long-term financial security.
Standard of Living Principle and Inflation Adjustment
The Supreme Court’s emphasis on maintaining the standard of living enjoyed during marriage represents a significant advancement in maintenance jurisprudence. The Court held that “the appellant-wife, who has remained unmarried and is living independently, is entitled to a level of maintenance that is reflective of the standard of living she enjoyed during the marriage and which reasonably secures her future” [11].
This principle addresses a fundamental flaw in traditional maintenance calculations that often reduced divorced women to mere subsistence levels regardless of their previous lifestyle or the husband’s financial capacity. The Court’s approach recognizes that marriage creates legitimate expectations of continued financial security, particularly for women who may have sacrificed career opportunities for family responsibilities.
The Court’s provision for automatic inflation adjustment (5% increase every two years) represents an innovative approach to addressing the erosion of maintenance value over time. This mechanism eliminates the need for repeated litigation while ensuring that maintenance awards retain their purchasing power and continue to serve their protective purpose.
Factors for Maintenance Determination
Building upon earlier precedents including Rajnesh v. Neha (2020) and Kiran Jyoti Maini v. Anish Pramod Patel (2024), the Court in Rakhi Sadhukhan refined the factors relevant for maintenance determination. These include the social and financial status of parties, reasonable needs of wife and dependent children, qualifications and employment status, independent income or assets, maintenance of marital lifestyle standards, employment sacrifices for family responsibilities, litigation costs for non-working wives, and the husband’s financial capacity and obligations [12].
The Court’s holistic approach examines not merely current income but earning potential, lifestyle patterns, and future financial security needs. This comprehensive assessment ensures that maintenance awards reflect the actual financial circumstances of parties rather than artificially constructed representations designed to minimize obligations.
Gender Justice and Economic Empowerment
The Rakhi Sadhukhan decision contributes to broader constitutional objectives of gender justice and women’s economic empowerment. The Court’s recognition that divorced women deserve continued financial security reflects evolving social understanding of marriage as creating mutual obligations that extend beyond the formal dissolution of the relationship. This approach aligns with constitutional commitments to substantive equality and social justice.
The judgment also addresses the practical reality that many Indian women continue to face economic disadvantages due to historical patterns of gender discrimination, limited employment opportunities, and family care responsibilities. The Court’s maintenance framework provides a form of economic protection that recognizes these structural inequalities while encouraging women’s independence and self-sufficiency.
Section IV: Comparative Analysis and Broader Implications
Evidentiary Standards Across Legal Domains
The three landmark judgments of 2025 demonstrate varying approaches to evidentiary standards and burden of proof across different legal contexts. In criminal law (Chetan case), the Court applies the highest evidentiary standard of proof beyond reasonable doubt while recognizing the practical challenges of circumstantial evidence. In civil procedure (National Collateral Management case), the Court emphasizes strict compliance with procedural requirements and the importance of documentary evidence in establishing limitation claims. In family law (Rakhi Sadhukhan case), the Court adopts a more liberal approach to evidence that prioritizes substantive justice and protection of vulnerable parties.
These varying approaches reflect the different policy objectives underlying each legal domain. Criminal law’s emphasis on proof beyond reasonable doubt serves the constitutional imperative of protecting individual liberty against state power. Civil procedure’s focus on strict compliance ensures judicial efficiency and prevents abuse of process. Family law’s protective approach recognizes the special vulnerability of economically dependent spouses and the state’s interest in preventing destitution.
Procedural Innovation and Access to Justice
All three landmark judgments of 2025 demonstrate judicial innovation in addressing procedural challenges that could otherwise defeat substantive rights. The Chetan case shows how courts can effectively evaluate complex circumstantial evidence through systematic application of established principles. The National Collateral Management case illustrates the importance of procedural discipline in maintaining the integrity of limitation periods. The Rakhi Sadhukhan case demonstrates how courts can innovate within existing legal frameworks to provide more effective relief.
These innovations reflect broader trends in Indian jurisprudence toward practical justice and effective dispute resolution. Courts increasingly recognize that rigid adherence to technical requirements may sometimes defeat the very purposes that legal procedures are designed to serve. The challenge lies in maintaining appropriate procedural safeguards while ensuring that legal technicalities do not prevent access to justice for deserving litigants.
Social Change and Legal Development
The three decisions reflect broader social changes affecting Indian society, including urbanization, changing family structures, commercial complexity, and evolving gender roles. The Chetan case illustrates how economic pressures and social tensions can lead to violent conflicts in contemporary Indian society. The National Collateral Management case reflects the increasing complexity of commercial relationships and the need for sophisticated legal frameworks to address business disputes. The Rakhi Sadhukhan case demonstrates changing expectations about gender equality and women’s economic rights.
These social changes require legal institutions to adapt traditional principles to contemporary realities while maintaining continuity with established legal values. The successful navigation of this challenge depends on judicial wisdom, legislative responsiveness, and societal commitment to constitutional values of justice, equality, and dignity.
Technology and Modern Legal Practice
The implementation of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, reflects broader efforts to modernize Indian legal frameworks for the digital age. Section 6’s provisions regarding conduct and preparation encompass electronic communications and digital evidence, while maintaining compatibility with traditional evidentiary principles. The Act’s recognition of electronic records as primary evidence represents a significant advancement in addressing technological challenges in legal proceedings.
The National Collateral Management case, involving a company engaged in bulk commodity management, illustrates how modern commercial practices require sophisticated legal frameworks that can address complex business relationships and electronic transactions. The Court’s analysis of procedural requirements must account for the increasing digitization of legal processes and the need for secure, reliable documentation of legal proceedings.
Conclusion
The three landmark judgments of 2025 analyzed in this article represent significant contributions to the evolution of Indian legal doctrine across multiple domains. The Supreme Court’s ruling in Chetan v. The State of Karnataka provides important guidance on the application of circumstantial evidence principles under the modernized Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, while maintaining continuity with established precedents. The Kerala High Court’s decision in M/S. National Collateral Management Service Ltd. v. Valiyaparambil Traders reinforces the importance of procedural discipline in limitation law while protecting the integrity of civil procedure. The Supreme Court’s judgment in Rakhi Sadhukhan v. Raja Sadhukhan advances the jurisprudence on maintenance rights for divorced women, providing enhanced protection while promoting gender justice.
These landmark judgments of 2025 collectively demonstrate the dynamic nature of Indian legal development and the judiciary’s commitment to adapting legal principles to contemporary challenges while maintaining fidelity to constitutional values. The successful integration of traditional legal wisdom with modern social realities reflects the maturity of Indian legal institutions and their capacity to serve the evolving needs of Indian society.
The broader implications of these decisions extend beyond their immediate legal contexts to influence the development of legal doctrine, professional practice, and social policy. As Indian society continues to evolve, the principles established in these cases will undoubtedly influence future judicial decisions and legislative developments, contributing to the ongoing project of building a just and equitable legal system that serves all members of Indian society.
The transition from colonial-era legal frameworks to the new Bharatiya legal codes provides an important backdrop for understanding these developments. The judiciary’s successful navigation of this transition while maintaining substantive justice demonstrates the resilience and adaptability of Indian legal institutions. As these new legal frameworks continue to evolve through judicial interpretation and practical application, the principles established in these landmark decisions will serve as important guideposts for future legal development.
References
[1] The Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, available at https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/20063
[2] Chetan v. The State of Karnataka, 2025 INSC 793, available at https://indiankanoon.org/doc/132209552/
[3] Section 6, Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, available at https://www.myjudix.com/post/section-6-bsa-bharatiya-sakshya-adhiniyam-2023
[4] Sharad Birdhichand Sarda v. State of Maharashtra, (1984) 4 SCC 116
[5] Supreme Court analysis in Chetan case, as reported in LiveLaw, available at https://www.livelaw.in/supreme-court/2025-livelaw-sc-656-chetan-v-the-state-of-karnataka-293955
[6] M/S. National Collateral Management Service Ltd. v. Valiyaparambil Traders, 2025 LiveLaw (Ker) 302, available at https://www.livelaw.in/high-court/kerala-high-court/kerala-high-court-weekly-may-june-2025-294009
[7] The Limitation Act, 1963, Section 14, available at https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1896
[8] Kerala High Court judgment in National Collateral Management case, 2025
[9] Rakhi Sadhukhan v. Raja Sadhukhan, 2025 INSC 789, available at https://indiankanoon.org/doc/110075485/
[10] Constitutional provisions on women’s rights and maintenance obligations
[11] Supreme Court ruling in Rakhi Sadhukhan case, as reported in LiveLaw, available at https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/supreme-court-ruling-maintenance-to-divorce-wife-and-standard-of-living-293991
[12] Rajnesh v. Neha, (2020) 17 SCC 1; Kiran Jyoti Maini v. Anish Pramod Patel, 2024
[13] Analysis of maintenance principles in Business Standard, available at https://www.business-standard.com/finance/personal-finance/divorced-wife-to-get-75-000-month-house-sc-lays-down-new-alimony-rules-125061300693_1.html
[14] Court analysis in Latest Laws, available at https://www.latestlaws.com/case-analysis/supreme-court-holds-divorced-wife-entitled-to-alimony-reflecting-marital-standard-of-living-226527
[15] Hanumant v. State of Madhya Pradesh, AIR 1952 SC 343 (fundamental principles of circumstantial evidence)
PDF Links to Full Judgement
- https://bhattandjoshiassociates.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/judgements/a2023-47.pdf
- https://bhattandjoshiassociates.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/judgements/Chetan_vs_State_Of_Karnataka_on_30_May_2025.PDF
- https://bhattandjoshiassociates.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/judgements/M_S_National_Collateral_Management_vs_Valiyaparambil_Traders_on_29_May_2025.PDF
- https://bhattandjoshiassociates.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/judgements/A1963-36.pdf
- https://bhattandjoshiassociates.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/judgements/Rakhi_Sadhukhan_vs_Raja_Sadhukhan_on_29_May_2025.PDF
- https://bhattandjoshiassociates.s3.ap-south-1.amazonaws.com/judgements/Hanumant_vs_The_State_Of_Madhya_Pradesh_on_23_September_1952.PDF
